Border clashes between Afghanistan and Pakistan have intensified sharply since the Taliban regained control of Afghanistan in 2021, with Pakistan’s defence minister recently describing the violence as ‘open war’. Islamabad accuses the Taliban authorities in Kabul of sheltering militants from the Pakistani Taliban (TTP), allegations Afghan officials deny while accusing Pakistan of violating Afghan sovereignty. According to a report by United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA), air strikes and cross-border shelling have caused heavy civilian casualties, including attacks on hospitals and populated areas. One of the deadliest incidents involved strikes on a Kabul drug treatment hospital in March, killing hundreds of people. On 27 April, seven civilians were killed and 85 wounded in shelling at a university in Kunar province, according to Afghan authorities. Although talks hosted in China in April reduced some tensions, further shelling incidents have continued, leaving civilians fearful and vulnerable along the border regions.